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Research
Based Teaching Practices
Reading
in the Classroom
The development of literacy is progressive. The process of learning
to read involves surrounding students with conversation and print,
modeling how reading is done, providing direct instruction in specific
areas of need, and encouraging them to engage in similar activities
independently. Various teaching methods are available to provide
this
support throughout the reading process.
Reading Aloud
Reading aloud to students allows them to experience great examples
of literature, works they would not be able to read on their
own at this point in their learning, and to experience a variety
of forms and styles of writing. It acquaints them with the language
and form of books and allows them to appreciate the pleasure
that comes from reading without having to concentrate on the
mechanics of decoding the printed word. Reading aloud encourages
them to want to emulate the reader and to acquire the skills
that will allow them to enjoy the pleasure and satisfaction of
reading for themselves. The listening and thinking skills used
during reading aloud help students with the development of comprehension
skills that are used when students read themselves.
Shared Reading
In the classroom, the reading done with students is called shared
reading. The technique of shared reading in the classroom was
created to replicate the experience of storybook reading, where
the student follows along as the adult reads aloud. Shared reading
is commonly done with books large enough to allow a group of
students to see the print and follow along. Shared reading can
also be done with poems and songs that are written on chart paper
or the overhead projector and with the products of interactive
writing activities. The teacher’s role in shared reading
is to: 1) choose appropriate material, 2) point to the text while
reading word-by-word for beginning readers and phrase-by-phrase
or line-by-line for more advanced readers, 3) read along with
the students, 4) read in a fluent and expressive manner, 5) select
explicit skills for direct instruction, and 6) observe the students'
responses and behaviors.
Guided Reading
In guided reading students assume more responsibility than in shared
reading. The teacher and a group of students, or sometimes just
one student, have their own copy of the book being read. The
teacher provides an introduction to the story, and then observes
the students as they read orally, talk, think, and question their
way through the story. The text chosen for guided reading should
be within an instructional range and should permit some new learning
and the opportunity for problem solving by the students. The
teacher assists the students in the problem solving experiences
in such a manner as to promote future use of the behaviors and
strategies needed by the students in problem solving situations.
Independent Reading
In independent reading the students assume responsibility for reading.
Opportunities for independent reading should be part of each
stage of students' literacy development. Materials for independent
reading can be familiar stories that students know from reading
aloud, shared reading, and guided reading experiences. New books
appropriate to a student’s independent level may also be
used. The teacher can take this time to observe individual student
reading and problem-solving behaviors.
Two other small group teaching methods are available for more
advanced readers that use flexible grouping and where students
apply reading and thinking strategies.
Reciprocal Teaching
Reciprocal teaching is an instructional approach that is used to
help students read for meaning and monitor their comprehension.
It is a small group activity that uses the major strategies of
predicting, clarifying, questioning, and summarizing to encourage
thinking during the reading process. This approach focuses more
on reading in the content areas but is appropriate for literature
as well.
Book Clubs
Students who are proficient at using decoding skills can be organized
into book clubs where the books read are selected by topic and
interest. Book clubs help develop deeper comprehension strategies
and overall enjoyment of reading. The teacher meets with the
group regularly to discuss issues, clarify points, and extend
student thinking while monitoring for progress.
The Reciprocity of Reading and Writing
Reading and writing are reciprocal processes. When a student reads,
he is decoding the message that the author has sent. When a student
writes, he needs to organize his thinking to form the message
that he intends to send to himself or to another reader. During
writing, students need to use alphabetic principle, word analysis,
spelling, and the conventions of print required for the particular
message that is being written. There are many important skills
that are necessary to learn in the reading and writing process.
Different kinds and levels of understanding are needed for students
to use these skills in reading and in writing. The ability to
read or decode a word does not guarantee that a student will
be able to write or encode the same word.
The Writing Process
Writing instruction is based upon student’s oral language
development and knowledge of the world around them, very much like
reading instruction at the acquisition phase. Learning that what
one says can be recorded in written form and then read by another
becomes a goal even for the very youngest student. In order to
provide writing instruction, teachers need to know what knowledge
students already possess.
The reciprocity of reading and writing is an essential connection
that all students need to develop and draw upon. Writing is done
at many different levels of understanding and thinking. The writer
needs to understand the basic principles of letter-sound correspondence,
letter formation, and using systematic patterns in words and word
clusters to spell words. Central to the process is, of course,
that the writer is sending a message to the reader and that the
message carries a meaning. Students need to understand various
purposes and forms of writing:
• Narrative writing tells a story or gives an account of something
dealing with sequences of events and experiences.
• Expository writing is the communication of details, facts
and content specific information.
• Descriptive writing provides a verbal rendition of a character,
event, setting or plot.
• Persuasive writing attempts to change a reader to a new belief,
position or course of action.
Writing generally develops more slowly than reading. A reader
has the advantage of gaining new knowledge by reading the
writing of others. Writers on the other hand have only
their own knowledge and must use this information to express
themselves in print. Beginning writers are encouraged to
write about things they know and are familiar with in their
lives. They are encouraged to use the language that they
hear every day in their homes and communities. Even though
this writing might not be grammatically correct, it helps
students understand that their thoughts and ideas can be
written down and communicated to others. This level of ownership
is an important part of becoming a writer.
Writing in the Classroom
The development of oral language is progressive. As vocabulary
grows, language structures become more complex and the knowledge
base expands as students progress in their language acquisition.
Likewise, in their writing, students progress from beginning
levels of vocabulary, sentence structure, spelling and phonology
to more complex levels. There are a variety of teaching methods
and experiences that support students’ growth in writing.
Interactive Writing
Interactive writing is a process in which the teacher and the students
collaborate on the construction of the text and share the role
of scribe. The negotiation of text is a process that develops
thinking, planning, refining and consolidating while at the same
time developing appropriate language structures and increasing
vocabulary. Types of interactive writing provide different levels
of support. In transcription, students focus on known text and
how that text was constructed. In innovation, students also work
with known text but add their own thinking and writing to the
end product. In negotiation, students and teacher share the responsibility
for deciding what to write and then the writing itself. The teacher
and students can work at many levels of competence, from letter
recognition and formation to learning various types of writing.
Interactive writing is an effective method to support skills
development in beginning readers, focus on the confusions of
struggling readers, and teach advanced writing skills to more
proficient readers and writers.
Interactive Editing
Interactive editing is a teaching method where the teacher and
students collaborate to edit familiar, error-free text. Interactive
editing provides an opportunity to discuss grammar and all of
the conventions of writing in the context of an authentic writing
activity. The importance of the reciprocity of reading and writing
is emphasized in interactive editing. The reading style and form
becomes the model for the writing, particularly with expository
materials.
Advanced Word Analysis
Advanced word analysis is the study of spelling patterns, suffixes,
prefixes and word origins. Words and patterns are taught based
on teacher observation of the independent writing of students.
The emphasis is on teaching students to make associations and
to draw upon what they already know about words in order to decode
or pronounce unknown words.
Independent Writing
Independent writing is the ultimate extension of all the other
methods of writing instruction. The goal is that the students
are all given the time necessary to independently write text,
incorporating all they have learned in large group and small
group writing methodologies.
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